Introduction By 1900, many physicians had noted metabolic acidosis in patients who were critically ill. In 1925, Clausen identified increased lactate along with acidosis in these patients, which gave rise…
Osmolality and volume regulation Introduction Osmolality in plasma is related to the number of solutes (soluble particles) dissolved in a kg of plasma water, with a normal osmolality between 280…
Introduction Symptoms of phosphate depletion have been described through the years, from the times of the ancient Romans to observations by veterinarians on livestock. Phosphate compounds are in all cells…
Introduction In 1695, from well water in Epsom, England, Dr. Nehemiah Grew prepared Epsom salts, a name still given to magnesium sulfate. The biological significance of magnesium as a constituent…
Introduction and history In 1883, Sydney Ringer showed that calcium was essential for myocardial contraction ( ) . In 1934, Franklin McLean and Baird Hastings published a report in the…
Introduction Hypoxemia, a decreased partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, is a commonly encountered clinical problem among patients with acute or chronic cardiopulmonary disorders. Accurately characterizing the cause and…
Physiologic differences between arterial and venous blood for blood gas and acid–base measurements More than any other analytes, p O 2 , p CO 2 , and pH change markedly…
Metabolic acidosis Metabolic acidosis is defined as a clinical process that leads to a decreased blood pH (acidemia) and a decreased HCO 3 level. It is caused by a gain…
Introduction and history of blood gases The term “blood gas” refers to the parameters pH, p CO 2 , and p O 2 measured in blood. Note that the little…
Team Care, Referrals, and Practice Resources Deborah Bade Horn CASE STUDY Grace is 50-year-old woman with hypertension, uncontrolled type 2 diabetes, and arthritis in both knees. Three months ago, you…
