HISTORIC PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT PERSPECTIVE
In today’s world the threat of terrorism with chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons is higher than ever, prompting an increase in public/civil awareness and preparedness for these potential disasters. Public service agencies such as law enforcement, emergency medical services (EMS), and fire are among the first to respond to render care, establish order, and gather evidence in such an event. The tactical team is likely to be called on for operations when an unconventional weapon threat is known or suspected. Duties in such situations may include apprehension of suspects, hostage rescue operations, dignitary protection missions, or standoffs where the use of such weapons is threatened or used. In such operations, to avoid becoming casualties themselves, tactical teams must be appropriately trained and equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE), which protects the wearer from inhalation and dermal exposure from hazardous materials.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) have defined four levels of PPE based on respiratory protection: Levels A to D (
Table 40.1). The level of protection necessary for a given environment depends on the toxicity of the agent, the form it is in (gas, liquid or solid), the length of exposure to the hazard, and the duties to be performed in the hazardous environment. It is critical for the tactical team to understand the benefits and limitations of each level of protection and select the appropriate type of PPE to allow the team to perform its mission as safely as possible.
The use of PPE in the workplace is regulated by OSHA, whose mission is assuring the safety and health of America’s workers by setting and enforcing workplace standards; providing training, outreach, and education; establishing partnerships; and encouraging continual improvement in workplace safety and health (
1). OSHA works in partnership with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to create national safety standards. These are augmented by state and local safety and health regulations. Regulations for PPE are found in hazardous waste operations and emergency response (HAZWOPER) standards 29 CFR 1910.120 and 29 CFR 1910.134 (
2,
3).
It is important to note that military PPE standards are not equivalent to OSHA’s regulations (
1,
2,
3,
4 and
5). In the United States, law enforcement agencies are governed by OSHA regulations rather than military standards. This has been a source of confusion for the law enforcement community when selecting equipment and creating policies and procedures. However, there is an ongoing effort by NIOSH, law enforcement, and the U.S. military to establish clearer standards (
1).
In this chapter, we review the four levels of OSHA-designated PPE and their various safety components, attributes, and limitations for the tactical team. Additionally, necessary medical monitoring and components of a PPE storage and maintenance program are also discussed. Note that although this chapter provides an overview of PPE, the authors strongly recommend that tactical teams and law enforcement agencies consult with an on-site expert when selecting and training with PPE. This consultant should make certain that team members can properly don and doff the equipment, perform maintenance, and understand the equipment’s strengths and weaknesses for the various situations for which it may be used. PPE that is inappropriate, improperly worn, or poorly maintained can be more devastating to an officer’s safety than no PPE at all (
1).
There are three ways to be adversely affected by a chemical, biological, or radiological agent: inhalational, dermal, and gastrointestinal. Inhalation exposures have the fastest onset and can rapidly incapacitate personnel. It is because of this that OSHA defines PPE levels on respiratory protection (
1). Although important in their own right, dermal and gastrointestinal routes of contamination can be protected against by wearing protective clothing and gloves and by not eating or drinking at the scene without being decontaminated first.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION FOR PERSONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT
OSHA and NIOSH have specified respiratory protection levels based on concentrations of chemicals that would
be immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) and permissible exposure limits (PEL) for chemicals and radiological entities. Additionally, the OSHA/EPA designations were created to describe the respiratory protection that employers must provide for workers.
In the tactical arena, a respiratory agent can incapacitate your team, so respiratory protection is very important. However, unless going into a confined space where known chemicals exist, you will be in ambient air, and a comprehensive filter should be adequate. If the concentration of breathable of oxygen is
<19.5% or the available oxygen is displaced by other gases, team members must bring in their own breathable atmosphere (
2).
There are two general categories of respiratory protection: the
air-supplied respirator, which is broken down into two types—the self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and the supplied-air respirator (SAR); and the
air-purifying respirator (APR), which filters the air but does not supply any supplemental oxygen. The two categories of respirators provide varying degrees of protection against airborne toxic hazards, such as an oxygen-depleted atmosphere, which would impair judgment and cause death (e.g., carbon monoxide or halogen) (
Table 40.2). Per OSHA regulations 29 CFR 1910.134, if an agency is using a face-fitting mask for respiratory protection the supervisory agency and wearer need to comply with the following basic regulations.
▪ Medical evaluations prior to allowing the tactical member to participate
▪ Fit testing procedures provided by an OSHA-approved person
▪ Annual fit tests for the mask
▪ Procedures for proper use of the equipment
▪ Procedures for maintaining masks and filters
▪ Training requirements for tactical members who will be wearing respiratory protection
Self-contained Breathing Apparatus
The SCBA offers the highest level of respiratory protection available because wearers carry their own air supplies and wear full face masks. An example of this is what firefighters wear for respiratory protection when they go into a smoke-filled building. The SCBA includes a tank that supplies compressed air through a hose to a well-sealed face mask. This system is used in areas of low oxygen concentration, when the concentration of the hazardous agent is unknown, or if the oxygen concentration is known to be <19.5% by volume. Oxygen deficiency may occur in confined spaces, which include, but are not limited to, storage tanks, process vessels, towers, drums, tank cars, bins, sewers, septic tanks, underground utility tunnels, manholes, and pits.
