Infiltration/Exfiltration
John M. Croushorn
OBJECTIVES
After reading this section, the reader will be able to:
Describe the methods of infiltration and exfiltration used by special operations units.
Understand the physiology in airborne operations.
Be able to describe the fast rope insertion and extraction system, formally known as the special procedure insertion and extraction system, FRIES/SPIES methods.
Discuss the risks of ground infiltrations by foot and the advantage of tactical and nontactical vehicles.
Be familiar with diving operations to include open- and closed-circuit diving.
Describe the Combat Rubber Raiding Craft and its use in infiltration and exfiltration.
Understand the types of injuries encountered during waterborne infiltration and exfilitration.
Discuss the ways to mitigate the risk of the previously mentioned operations.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
“When you’re on the march, act the way you would if you was sneaking up on a deer. See the enemy first.”
—Third Order from Rogers’ Rules of Ranging
Inherent in special operations is the ability for units to control and leverage resources against their opponents. An important aspect of this strategy is the movement to and from an objective expeditiously and in such a way to maximize the elements of surprise and tactical advantage. This is important both from a strategic as well as tactical perspective. Special operations units practice infiltration and exfiltration as integral components of their mission capability. Movement in force by air, ground, and waterborne assets are often utilized to this end. It is important for the tactical medicine provider to be aware of these infiltration and exfiltration techniques to adequately preplan for potential health risks to unit members as well as advising commanders on safety and risk mitigation.
Within the military, infiltration and exfiltration techniques are part of the basic building blocks that all special operation forces hone. Airborne training is prerequisite for involvement operationally. Small boat operations and helicopter insertion is considered basic in the operators fund of knowledge. More advanced techniques, such as self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) training and Military Free Fall, are taught to teams based on their operational assignments. Additionally, advanced field trade craft in approaching targets by ground is taught in courses, such as the Special Operation Target Interdiction Course (SOTIC). Among law enforcement special operations units, certain methods may never be employed given their resources and their operational environment. However, responsibilities of law enforcement special operations teams continue to expand with the growing realities of the global war on terrorism and homeland defense.
METHODS
Air Infiltration
Air infiltration has classically been divided into parachute and nonparachute methods. Conventional airborne operations utilize static line techniques from fixed wing or rotary wing aircraft at altitudes that are safe for normal human physiology. Military free fall parachute operations
that begin at higher altitudes, such as high altitude low opening (HALO) or high altitude high opening (HAHO), provide greater tactical advantage at the cost of increased risks. The nonparachute methods include the use of delivery by aircraft to a landing zone and the use of helicopters in tactical placement of forces without touching down in a landing zone.
that begin at higher altitudes, such as high altitude low opening (HALO) or high altitude high opening (HAHO), provide greater tactical advantage at the cost of increased risks. The nonparachute methods include the use of delivery by aircraft to a landing zone and the use of helicopters in tactical placement of forces without touching down in a landing zone.
Parachute Infiltration
Static line airborne operations in the military use the T-10B or MCI-1B parachute systems. The T-10B is a nonsteerable parachute used for large unit deployment. The MCI-1B is more maneuverable and used in smaller unit operations with accompanying higher risks due to increased maneuverability. These jumps take place at altitudes below 10,000 feet, most occurring between 500 to 2,000 feet. Sea level to 10,000 feet is considered the physiologic zone. The healthy human is well adapted to this zone and can function without physiologic support. The only significant problem relating to altitude encountered in this zone is ventilation of the middle ear. Ventilation of the middle ear can be facilitated with the Valsalva maneuver (1).
Injuries occur in both training and tactical operations. However, until recently, not much was known about actual operational casualty and attrition rates. A comprehensive study of casualty, attrition, and surgery rates for recent combat airborne operations revealed an overall casualty rate 12%. Injuries resulting in the soldier being unable to continue the mission were much lower at 4.7% and serious injuries requiring surgical intervention was 1.7%. The majority of the injuries, (68.7%), were lower extremity injuries (2).
High-altitude techniques require special training and an operational assignment to units that conduct this specialized mission. The MC-5 ram-air parachute system (RAPS) is utilized in the Military Freefall Parachutist School for parachute operations between 10,000 feet and 25,000 feet. They are more maneuverable than the static line parachutes and afford a greater degree of control and capability for insertion of special operation forces.
Man is not physiologically equipped for survival at high altitudes. The dangers inherent in high-altitude parachuting are hypoxia, hyperventilation, and trapped gas disorders. As altitude increases, barometric pressure decreases and even the ascent to begin parachute operations can affect the body adversely. For high-altitude parachuting, supportive equipment is used to mitigate these risks.
Above 10,000 feet, physiologic support is needed; this is the beginning of the physiologic deficient zone. The first physiologic problem encountered is hypoxia. Symptoms of hypoxia include loss of color vision, anxiety, and mental confusion. Symptoms can vary from person to person. Because of this, it is necessary that operators receive training in an altitude chamber to recognize their hypoxia symptoms and how to use appropriate protective equipment. To mitigate this danger, an oxygen mask is worn with a regulator controlling the concentration of inspired oxygen. Positive pressure support is not a necessity until altitudes above 30,000 feet (1).
Above 18,000 feet, altitude decompression sickness (DCS) can occur. Active pressurization and nitrogen “wash out” can prevent this. Without pressurization, the operator can minimize the chance of DCS by prebreathing and continuing on 100% oxygen. This breathing of 100% oxygen washes the inert gas nitrogen from the lungs and creates a gradient to “off gas” nitrogen from the blood stream and reduces the chances of decompression sickness. Several factors affect the development of DCS. These include: minimal prebreathing period, rapid change in altitude, prolonged exposure to altitude, and increased pressure environments (i.e., SCUBA diving) prior to operations at altitude.
Above 33,000 feet, breathing 100% oxygen no longer prevents hypoxia. Therefore, to prevent hypoxia above 33,000 feet, oxygen will need to be delivered by positive pressure breathing (1).
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