Chapter 83 Safety and Survival at Sea
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The 1979 Fastnet Race distinguished itself as the worst disaster in the long history of ocean yachting. A surprise killer storm crossed the Irish Sea between southwest England and southern Ireland and exploded without warning in the midst of the Fastnet racing fleet. Suddenly, 2700 men and women in 303 ocean sailing yachts unwittingly became participants in hundreds of incidents of survival at sea. Winds of force 10 (55 knots) with much stronger gusts, and seas as high as 15 m (50 feet) knocked down 48% of the fleet until their masts paralleled the water; 33% of the fleet experienced knockdowns substantially beyond horizontal, including total inversions and full 360° rolls in the case of at least 26 yachts. Despite a massive response of rescue personnel and equipment, 24 yachts were abandoned and five of those sank. Fifteen sailors died and 136 were rescued from disabled yachts or the water. The official Fastnet Race Inquiry noted, “The common link among all 15 deaths was the violence of the sea, an unremitting danger faced by all who sail.” It concluded: “The sea showed that it can be a deadly enemy and that those who go to sea for pleasure must do so in the full knowledge that they may encounter dangers of the highest order.”1 The Fastnet storm had two positive results. Boats, safety gear, and safety procedures were improved dramatically, and sailors began to talk realistically about the risks of sailing and came to regard safety as a necessary discipline. The first public safety at sea seminars were held in Annapolis and New York in the shadow of the Fastnet shock. Since then, hundreds of safety and seamanship seminars have been held across America and in other sailing locations.
Who’s At Risk?
Analysis of U.S. recreational boating accident statistics for 2010, the most recent data available from the Coast Guard in their annual report “Recreational Boating Statistics 2010,” indicates there were 672 boating fatalities in 2010 (736 in 2009). Capsizing and falls overboard from open motor boats, rowboats, canoes, and kayaks accounted for more than one-half of the fatalities. The most common types of vessels involved in open accidents were open motor boats (46%), personal water craft (20%), and cabin motorboats (14%). The Coast Guard Recreational Boating Accident Report Database (BARD) shows an average of 5000 recreational boating accidents annually. Sixty percent of all accidents involve operator and passenger controllable factors, and 25% involve boat or environmental factors. Careless/reckless operation, inattentive and inexperienced boat operators boating at unsafe speeds without proper lookout, and risky passenger/skier behavior cause most fatalities and injuries. Ninety percent of deaths occurred on boats where the operator has received no boating safety instruction. Collision with another boat is responsible for the greatest number of nonfatal injuries. Collision with a fixed object, flooding/swamping, water skier mishaps, and capsizing rank second, third, fouth, and fifth in accident rank, and account for 60% of fatalities. Open motorboats less than 8 m (26 feet) in length and jet-ski personal watercraft (PWC) comprise two-thirds of the water craft involved in collisions, and are the vessel types with the most casualties and deaths. Alcohol is a leading contributing factor in recreational boating fatalities, responsible for at least 20% to 25% of deaths. These statistics indicate that one of the greatest threats to a boater’s safety in “home waters” is the inexperienced operator heading directly toward you at excessive speed, unaware that you are dead ahead. Extra vigilance is required in order to take evasive action to avoid collision. Two-thirds of all fatalities in accidents on sailboats and small nonmotorized craft are from drowning, and 90% of victims are not wearing a lifejacket (see discussion below). Eight out of 10 drowned boaters are from boats less than 6 m (21 feet) long. The full report can be reviewed on line at www.uscgboating.org/statistics/accident_statistics.aspx.
Health Issues at Sea
Seasickness
TABLE 83-1 Medications for Seasickness
Medication | Dose | Interval |
---|---|---|
Diphenhydramine, (Benadryl) (OTC) | 25 or 50 mg tab | 6-8 hr |
Dimenhydrinate, (Dramamine) (OTC) | 50 or 100 mg tab (max 400 mg/day) | 4-6 hr |
Meclizine (OTC) | 12.5 or 25 mg tab (max 100 mg/day) | 6-8 hr |
Bonine (Meclizine) (OTC) | 25 mg chewable tab | 6-8 hr |
Cinnarizine (Stugeron) | 15 mg tab (max 100 mg/day) | 6-12 hr |
Scopolamine (Transderm Scōp) | 1.5 mg skin patch | 72 hr |
(Scopace) | 0.4 mg (max 2.4 mg/day) | 8 hr |
Promethazine, (Phenergan) | 12.5/25/50-mg tab, suppository, deep IM injection | variable intervals, depending on dose/preparation |
The antihistamines meclizine (Bonine) and dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) are available over the counter (OTC) without prescription. They are effective for many sailors, as are the other prescription medications listed in Table 83-1. The popular antihistamine cinnarizine (Stugeron) is not sold in the United States, but is available OTC in Europe, Bermuda, Mexico, and Canada. It can be obtained legally from www.canadadrugsonline.com. It is favored by many sailors because it is less sedating than all the other antihistamines and has fewer reported side effects (described below).
Health Maintenance at Sea
Fahrenheit
Hypothermia (see Chapters 5 and 6) may develop acutely when someone is suddenly immersed in cold water, or over a period of hours to days during prolonged exposure to the elements. Mild hypothermia, defined as a core temperature above 32° C (90° F), is the only level that can be treated aboard a boat. Deeper levels require evacuation to a medical facility. Sustained uncontrollable shivering is the most reliable and earliest sign of a drop in core temperature. Other early clues are alterations in motor skills and changes in mental status. As blood is diverted from the muscles and nerves, there is loss of manual dexterity, large muscle coordination, and strength. Clumsiness while performing simple tasks, such as adjusting binoculars or using navigational instruments, is apparent. Walking safely on deck and working with lines and gear becomes hazardous. Subtle changes in mental status cause impaired judgment, confusion, and disorientation. There are changes in personality and frequent errors in judgment. Initial treatment of a fully conscious and shivering mildly hypothermic person with a core temperature above 32° C (90° F) is to prevent further cooling and heat loss. The person is still capable of rewarming him or herself and does not require evacuation. Shelter the victim from wind and water. Replace wet clothing with multiple layers of dry insulating garments after the skin is completely dried. If dry clothing is not available, provide an extra vapor barrier with added foul weather gear. A windproof layer minimizes convective and evaporative heat loss. When practical, wrap the victim in blankets, sleeping bag, sails, or sail bags. Provide calories with simple carbohydrate foods and sweet liquid drinks, and allow vigorous shivering to continue in order to generate rewarming heat. Warm liquids are psychologically beneficial but will not influence rewarming rates.
Gear and Equipment
Life Jackets
Inflatable vests have a flat and lightweight design that allows them to lie flush against the body so they do not restrict movement. They have excellent wearability and superb flotation capabilities. The vests provide as much as 16 kg or 150 newtons (35 lb) of buoyancy, compared with 10 kg (22.5 lb) in type I and 7 kg (15.5 lb) in types II and III. In most cases, added buoyancy enables the person to float higher, making it easier to breathe, and reduces the risk of aspirating seawater in rough sea conditions. By keeping the head and chest higher out of the water, it is easier to adopt the heat escape lessening position (HELP) (see Chapter 75). With buoyancy high on the chest, there is also better righting ability and head support. The offshore model can be purchased with an integrated safety harness (Figure 83-1).
Emergencies at Sea
Crew Overboard
Remaining Aboard
Recovery of Crew Overboard
Electronic overboard alarms are available for crew; these are small transmitters alerting the mother ship receiver. The personal alarms are activated when they contact the water or when manually turned on (Figure 83-3, online). All onboard GPS units have a MOB function, which, if activated, will create a waypoint at the vessel’s position when pressed. It will also make the waypoint “active,” so the vessel can return to the latitude and longitude of the person at the time of the fall. The GPS is a powerful search and rescue tool, but is not a substitute for maintaining strict visual contact and using signal lights and markers. The inherent small degree of error with GPS in marking the waypoint of the MOB is magnified in heavy winds, large seas, and strong currents, because the person may drift downwind or down-current while the boat returns to the scene. GPS receivers receive signals from U.S. Air Force satellites and then compute the location accurately to within 10 m. It may still be impossible to locate the person in rough seas or during reduced visibility.
Rather than rely on the ship’s emergency locator beacon, sailors can wear them on their person. A small unit can be worn (on a life jacket) by a crew member as a personal locator beacon (PLB). Weighing as little as 500 mL (1 pint), and not much larger than a cell phone, it also transmits on the 406- and 121.5-MHz frequencies. The battery life for this compact unit exceeds 24 hours. PLBs do not float upright in the transmitting position. The transmitter requires manual activation and must be held out of the water with the antenna pointed skyward (Figure 83-4). It would be difficult to do this without wearing a life jacket. Some units have an integrated GPS to yield location accuracy to within less than a 91-m (300-foot) radius, versus a 5-km (3-mile) radius from the 406-MHz beacon operating alone. The problem is that most boats, other than professional rescue vessels [or SAR aircraft], are not equipped with a receiver capable of locating the source of the “homer” beacon on the PLB. All PLBs require registration with NOAA. A less technical signaling device designed for night use is the Rescue Laser Flare. This is a handheld light that produces a visible line of laser beam to attract the attention of search boats and aircraft within a 10- to 20-mile radius (Figure 83-5, online).
Crew Overboard Maneuvers
The goal is to have the MOB back on the boat as quickly as possible. Practice the different techniques and decide which method and modifications work most effectively. The Lifesling, developed to enable one person to retrieve a person overboard, is a flexible floating collar that doubles as a hoisting sling (Figure 83-6, online). Deploy the collar from the stern pulpit and deliver it by repeatedly circling the victim, much as a ski boat maneuvers to deliver the towrope to a fallen water skier. After securing the horseshoe over the head and under the arms, pull the victim back to the boat and hoist him or her in the apparatus with the assistance of a halyard and winch (Figure 83-7). Lifelines are an obstacle to bringing the MOB back on deck, but are an important source of protection for the remaining crew. You may elect to secure lifelines at the stern (or transom) with lashing rather than shackles or pins so they can be easily cut and released in a recovery should the need arise.
If the crew has lost sight of the victim, immediately call for assistance. A mayday call on VHF-FM channel 16 will notify the Coast Guard and simultaneously alert all ships in the area monitoring this channel. The last known position should be obtained using GPS or reference to any navigational buoys and landmarks on shore. Rescuers should perform repeat searches of the area, because it is easy to miss someone in poor visibility or choppy seas. The victim will be far more likely to be located if he has the correct gear. Ideally, this includes a high-visibility (orange or yellow) life jacket with reflective tape combined with a safety harness, personal strobe light, loud whistle, packet of waterproof self-launching meteor flares, fluorescent dye marker, and a PLB or other crew-overboard alarm. Perhaps the most important factors for a successful rescue are the crew’s familiarity with the boat and the MOB equipment, and their teamwork, leadership, and expertise developed from practicing the maneuvers. A full review of the 2005 Crew Overboard Rescue Symposium conducted on San Francisco Bay can be found at www.boatus.com/foundation/findings/COBfinalreport. This study reviews the challenges for a successful recovery, required skills of the crew, preferred recovery maneuvers, and equipment that can be helpful in locating and retrieving the victim. It is a “must” read for every boater. It is also available in a slightly different format from U.S. Sailing on the website www.ussailing.org/safety/Studies/COB.pdf.
Flooding
Flooding, and the potential for sinking, is a threat to every boater. Boat U.S. Marine Insurance examined 50 claims from recreational boats that sank while underway, ranging from a tiny personal watercraft to a 16.5-m (54-foot) ocean-going sailboat. The full report is on the website at www.boatus.com/foundation/guide/index.html. Thirty-four percent of the boats sank because of leaks at thru-hulls, outdrive boots, or the raw water cooling system/exhaust. The single most critical reason small motorboats flood in open water relates to transom height. Engine cut-outs may be only inches above the waves, and the motor well may not protect the cockpit. Often, weight distribution of passengers and gear to the stern contributes to the problem.
Flooding may occur from failure of systems or construction (6% of the boats sank after coming down hard off of waves and therefore splitting open), or structural damage from collision and extreme weather (Box 83-1). Before abandoning ship, quickly assess the damage. The limiting factor is time. Stock the proper tools and repair supplies in a damage control kit (Box 83-2), and know how to respond quickly and skillfully. Assign duties to the crew before departure so that they know what to do in the event of flooding (and crew overboard, fire, grounding, and dismasting). Duties include damage control, radio transmission of a Mayday (can be cancelled later if necessary), and preparation to abandon ship.
BOX 83-1 Sources of Flooding
Reliable bilge pumps are the best defense against flooding (Figure 83-8, online). An excellent pump can buy time for locating and plugging the leak. However, no pump, manual or electric, can keep up with even a modest-sized hull breach. If a boat is equipped with an automatic bilge pump (or pumps), install a cycle counter on the pump and an “on” light to alert the crew when the pump is activated. A second emergency pump mounted above the first, using a separate float switch, can provide added pumping capability if the first pump cannot keep up with the leak. In this case, an alarm installed in the circuit can alert the crew to flooding.

FIGURE 83-9 Triangular patches made from coated fabrics can be held in place with lines attached to each corner.
If flooding and sinking are inevitable, the captain should consider running the boat onto shore.
Fire
Uncontrolled fire is a disaster aboard ship. Fires aboard wood and fiberglass boats have the potential to double in size every 10 seconds. Approximately 7500 pleasure boat fires and explosions occur annually; of these, 10% are declared total losses. More than one-half of the 2700 fire-related injuries incurred each year occur on small, open motor boats. According to statistics compiled by Boat U.S. Marine Insurance claims investigations (www.boatus.com/seaworthy/fire/default.asp), the leading causes of fires on boats (55%) are AC and DC wiring faults. The most common electrical problem is related to chafed wires. Many fires are started by battery cables, bilge pump wires, and even instrument wires chafing on hard objects like vibrating engines or sharp-edged bulkheads. The DC voltage regulator is responsible for 25% of electrical fires. Eleven percent of fires are started by the boat’s AC system, frequently at the shore power inlet box. A small number of fires every year are caused by AC heaters and other household appliances that have been brought on board. Nearly one-quarter of boat fires (24%) were started by overheated propulsion systems. Frequently, an intake or exhaust cooling water passage was obstructed, causing the engine to overheat and begin to melt down hoses and impellers. These fires tended to be less serious, but because of the amount of smoke and the fact the fires come from areas with flammable fuels, they appeared more threatening. Often the fires were simply smoldering rubber, until the engine compartment was opened, allowing fresh air to enter. Lightning is a major cause of boat fires at marinas in Florida. Box 83-3 lists ways to prevent fires aboard ship.
BOX 83-3 Fire Prevention at Sea