Chapter 43 Jungle Travel and Survival
Tropical Environment
In these forests lies a virtually limitless supply of excitement, joy, and wonder to be encountered in new illuminations on the constructs and workings of life on Earth.32
As the most biologically diverse community of living things on Earth, the tropical rain forest is a realm of superlatives: a single acre of tropical forest may contain more than one-half as many species of trees as occur in all the land mass of temperate North America; 1 square mile of Amazonian forest may be home to double the variety of butterflies that exist in all of the United States and Canada; a single tree in Peru yields as many species of ants as in all of the British Isles. Facts and figures fail to capture the essence of tropical rain forests and their extraordinary biologic diversity. Seen from the air, the forest stretches from horizon to horizon in a vast green carpet. In season, the crowns of trees in full blossom dot the landscape with vivid splashes of red, orange, and yellow. Sizable streams may be hidden beneath the emerald canopy. Rivers, usually muddy yellow or black, snake through the forest; early-morning or late-afternoon sun transforms these braided rivers into glistening, mirror-like strands of liquid silver.
Observed from the forest floor, the jungle is entrancing. In virgin, deep forest, all is muted and shadowy, save for random shafts of light that spotlight labyrinths of oddly shaped branches and spectacularly colored flowers. Shrubs and herbaceous plants are scarce in forest away from the flood plain, so it is relatively easy to walk undisturbed. The dimness is occasionally disrupted by areas bathed in bright light from larger holes in the canopy caused by a recently fallen tree, sandy beach, or cutting and burning by humans. It is in these sunlit, light-gap areas that the traveler encounters the lush and nearly impenetrable wall of foliage portrayed in adventure films. The tidy textbook division of vegetation into distinct tiers is somewhat arbitrary and not easily confirmed, even by experts.36
Trip Preparation
Despite environmental differences within the jungle, the basics of travel remain the same.
Reading
Back issues of National Geographic magazine and the writings of Wilson provide an excellent introduction to people, places, and biodiversity issues.4,50,51 The Smithsonian Atlas of the Amazon,18 the definitive illustrated atlas (150 color maps and 289 photographs) of the region, is highly recommended, as is the Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests series (Asia and the Pacific,9 Africa,38 the Americas22). The references for this chapter (available online at www.expertconsult.com) offer insights into the complex inner workings of the moist tropical forest.1,35,36 The books by Kritcher26 and Forsyth and colleagues17 are especially helpful.
Trips into the rain forest should be scheduled for the dry season because trails are more serviceable for trekking at that time. Information on weather patterns can be obtained from agencies of national governments, anthropologists, and missionaries. Weather Underground (http://www.wunderground.com) provides current, as well as seasonal, weather averages for many cities and towns in tropical regions.
Attitude
In selecting participants, experienced expedition leaders look for a sense of humor. The ability to see the bright side in difficult times may be an asset more valuable than physical conditioning. Houston24 and others have discussed the role of humor as a predictor of success. Erb13,14 noted that successful or failed participation in wilderness ventures also is a significant predictor.
Relationship Considerations
Couples routinely report benefits from the shared experience of wilderness adventure travel, ecotourism, and academic field research. However, in the setting of high-risk expeditions where safety and prompt rescue cannot be assured, a number of group leaders privately note that two individuals who have a sexual relationship may form a team within a team, to the detriment of the expedition as a whole.48
Conditioning
Indigenous peoples in jungle regions are almost always slender. After trekking with large numbers of nonindigenous men and women in equatorial regions, I have observed that overweight or powerfully built individuals, particularly men, seem to fare the worst, especially with heat-related illness. Achieving an ideal body weight and becoming aerobically fit by walking or jogging for extended periods of time are beneficial before jungle trekking.
Although being in good shape is sensible, a person need not be an elite athlete to trek through the jungle and enjoy the experience. Good leg strength, acquired by training 20 to 30 minutes on alternate days with stair-climbing exercise machines, offers appropriate preparation.
To keep up with native porters and guides, the prospective expedition member should practice hiking at a fast pace. Once in the jungle, travelers should imitate the energy-saving, fluid rhythm of local inhabitants.
Because trekkers frequently encounter single-log bridges, a well-developed sense of balance is desirable (Figure 43-1). Walking on the rails of untrafficked train tracks or on roadway curbs may help in preparation. To adapt to specific situations, trekkers should go to the woodlands and practice walking on logs. Head stability is important. Equilibrium can be enhanced by avoiding brisk head movements and by employing the “gaze-anchoring” technique of tightrope walkers. The person fixes the gaze on a spot near the end of the log and does not stare down at the spot just ahead of the feet.3,8 Special cleats (Covell Ice Walker Quick Clip cleats) (Figure 43-2) should be considered for crossing log bridges that are high off the ground, long, and slippery. The cleats can be snapped on quickly before crossing a log bridge and promptly snapped off at the other end. Stability on logs also may be enhanced by turning the feet approximately 20 to 25 degrees to the right or left (whichever seems more natural), rather than walking with the feet in a straight line on the log.
Immunizations
Travelers to rain forest regions should protect against the following diseases by vaccination or with prophylactic medications (see Chapter 84):
Malaria is prevalent throughout the tropics. Before travel to malarious areas, appropriate prophylaxis is needed. Updated information on the risk for malaria in various regions may be obtained through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (http://www.cdc.gov/travel). The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics (http://www.medicalletter.com) is an excellent source for current recommendations on preventing and treating malaria.
Medical Kit
The Wilderness Medical Society points out that it is inappropriate to pack medications and equipment when no team member has the knowledge or experience to use them safely.25 The following items for a basic medical kit (Box 43-1) are adequate for personal use in the rain forest setting:
FIGURE 43-3 Tamarins and marmosets are kept as pets to aid in grooming for head lice.
(Courtesy John Walden.)
Common sense dictates supplementary items. Women on long trips might add miconazole vaginal suppositories or fluconazole (Diflucan, 150 mg as a single oral dose) to treat yeast infections; older men might take a 16-Fr catheter and sterile lubricating jelly for dealing with urinary retention from prostatic hypertrophy. The fingers may swell rapidly during vigorous activity in the rain forest. To eliminate the possible need for emergency removal, all rings (including toe rings) should be removed before jungle trekking. Body piercings should be removed to eliminate the risk for infection.
Gear
The goal is to travel as “light” as possible. The more gear that is packed, the greater is the likelihood of breakdowns, complications, and misery. The items mentioned in Box 43-2 have withstood the test of time over years of long-distance tropical trekking. Gear must hold up under difficult jungle travel conditions that include heat, wetness, and mud. No line of advertised gear is ideally suited for the traveler in the tropics.
Footwear
Because feet absorb more punishment than any other part of the body, suitable footwear is the most important item of gear. This is one area in which a person absolutely must not carry inferior equipment. If the feet cannot go, nothing can go.
Military “Vietnam-style” jungle boots with leather uppers, steel insole plates, and speed lacing are unsuitable for serious, long-distance trekking. After an hour of hard walking through streams and muddy trails, blisters can form on every surface of the foot, and the skin will peel off in sheets, bringing a jungle trip to a premature end. Furthermore, safely crossing log bridges and mossy, slime-covered river rocks is almost impossible in these boots.
Two pairs of shoes are needed: one suitable for the wet, slippery conditions imposed by the trail and another that meets the need for dryness and comfort in camp.
Trail Shoes
The following features are desirable in trail shoes:
Camp Boots
Footwear needs are different in camp, where the trekker wants dry feet. Shoes, although excellent for the trail, are not suited for camp. A noninsulated, pull-on (laceless), open-top boot that comes to midcalf keeps mud off the feet and pants and, when worn with thin nylon socks, allows enough air to circulate to keep the feet cool and dry.
Rubber remains an excellent material for keeping water away from the feet. Rubber lug soles provide traction. When rubber-soled boots are worn at an encampment, however, extreme caution is needed when crossing bridges and walking on wet rocks. Camp boots should be lightweight because they must be carried in a pack on the trail. Discount stores usually carry lightweight, lug-soled rubber boots that meet the criteria for jungle camp boots.
Other Options
The lightweight, comfortable, mesh/neoprene fabric “water” shoes popular for beach and sailboarding activities may have a place on river trips when substantial time will be spent in dugout canoes or rubber rafts.
Thongs and open-toe sandals are fine for most towns and cities in the tropics, but in certain jungle regions, such as the Amazon basin, exposed feet invite hordes of biting insects.
The jungle traveler must never go barefoot. Plant spines and glass can puncture the feet, and larvae of ubiquitous parasites, such as Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus (the hookworms) and Strongyloides species can enter through the skin. The burrowing jigger flea, Tunga penetrans, is a serious pest and can be avoided by wearing shoes.
Socks
Cotton or thin synthetic socks should be worn in the jungle to decrease the risk for blisters from wet trail shoes, to reduce insect bites, particularly from no-see-ums (Ceratopogonidae family), and to lessen the risk for lacerations from saw grass (Figure 43-4).
Clothing
In many countries, military green or camouflage-style clothing is strictly contraindicated. This is particularly true in military dictatorships or in remote border regions. To be mistaken for a guerilla or foreign infiltrator by the military, police, or security (undercover) forces can lead to harassment, detention, or worse.
Hat
For protection from radiant heat and light objects falling in the forest, the traveler should wear a lightweight, light-colored hat that has a medium or wide brim. It need not be waterproof but should be made of material that can be wadded up. A useful feature is a fastener on each side to snap the brim up for traveling on the trail. A pith helmet, widely regarded as an affectation, is fine for open savanna and river trips, but on the trail, branches make it impractical.
Pullover
Drenching rain may leave a person feeling chilled and uncomfortable, particularly when traveling mainly by canoe or raft. Chilling generally is not a problem when hiking on the trail as long as the person keeps moving. A Dacron polyester fleece pullover, such as L.L. Bean’s Polartec pullover, REI’s polyester lightweight MTS long-sleeve crew, or Patagonia’s polyester pullover, will keep a person warm. Wet garments should be wrung out so that they continue to offer thermal protection. Professional white-water boatmen working in tropical regions generally pack a polyester outerwear garment.
Shirts
Two light-colored, ultra-lightweight, long-sleeved cotton shirts should be taken. At the end of the day, the trail shirt should be washed and rinsed so that it will be ready, although perhaps still damp, the next morning. The second shirt can be used in camp or as a spare for the trail. Expensive synthetic shirts “guaranteed to wick away moisture” are poor jungle trail shirts and make the person sweaty and sticky.
In camp, if no-see-ums and mosquitoes are few, a lightweight, short-sleeved cotton shirt is practical. Two should be packed. A four-pocket style called the guayabera, favored by men throughout Latin America and the Caribbean, is ideal. La Casa de Las Guayaberas (Naroca Plaza, 5840 SW 8th St, Miami, FL 33144; 305-266-9683; fax 305-267-1687) has an exceptional selection of short- and long-sleeved guayaberas; be sure to specify 100% cotton.
Pants
Two pairs of ultra-lightweight, light-colored pants are needed. Although synthetic shirts are unsuitable for trekking in the hot, humid tropics, nylon Supplex or Taslan pants with a built-in mesh brief are ideal. To reiterate: Cotton is preferable above the waist; Supplex or Taslan is preferable below the waist. Pants made of these materials hold up well, are quick drying, and meet the criteria for comfort on the trail. One pair is worn on the trail during the entire trip. The other pair is worn around camp and in towns along the way. Pants with zip-off legs to create instant shorts should be avoided; they will not hold up to strenuous trail conditions. Trail pants should be washed often. Jeans become waterlogged as soon as they become wet and are totally unsuitable for tropical trekking.
Bedding
Flannel Sheet
Tropical rain forests become uncomfortably cold between midnight and sunrise. A cotton sheet does not provide enough warmth, a blanket is too heavy, and a summer-weight sleeping bag retains too much body heat. A flannel sheet sewn together like a mummy bag (40 × 90 inches), but without a taper, provides suitable warmth placed either in a hammock or on a pad.
Many inhabitants of the tropical forests sleep with their feet near a fire that is tended throughout the night. They have learned that the chill of damp, cool jungle nights can be lessened as long as the feet stay warm. Disposable “warm packs” (Heat Treat Toe Warmers) can be attached by the adhesive backing to the outside of socks, under the toes.
Hammock
Soft cloth hammocks are too bulky and heavy for trips and begin to smell after a few days. Fishnet cotton hammocks tend to fall apart within hours or days. So-called camping tent-hammocks or military tent-hammocks are impossible to sling properly, extremely uncomfortable, hot, unstable, and never able to keep the rain out in a heavy tropical downpour.
The EZ Sales EZ-199 Marina Double Hammock is available online from multiple sources and has proved nearly ideal for jungle travel. It is compact, lightweight, durable, and reasonably comfortable. It cannot rot or absorb odors. For easier handling, the ski rope tie-end lines that are sold with the Double Hammock should be replaced with 1-cm (0.4-inch) nylon double-braided rope available from home improvement retailers or a boating supply source such as West Marine (http://www.westmarine.com).
Therm-a-Rest
The Therm-a-Rest foam pad is the choice of expedition organizers in temperate and cold climates throughout the world. It combines the insulating qualities of foam and the cushioning of an air mattress, rolls up to a compact size, and inflates on its own when the valve is opened.
The traveler who will be sleeping on a pad should pack a 1.4- × 2.3-m (1.5- × 2.5-yard) plastic groundsheet. The sheet should not be placed directly on the jungle floor, where stinging insects and snakes abound. It should be used only in a hut or on an elevated platform. The groundsheet may also be beneficial for temporary rain protection and for keeping bow spray off a person or gear during water travel. For jungle travel, I prefer a hammock over a foam pad.
Mosquito Netting
A mosquito net designed for use with a hammock is basically a rectangular box that is open at the bottom with sleeves at each end panel for the passage of the ropes by which the hammock is slung. Such nets are difficult to find outside the tropics. Fortunately, a serviceable mosquito net can easily be made from “no-see-um netting.” (No-See-Um mosquito netting is available from U.S. Netting, sales@usnetting.com.) See later in this chapter for the details of mosquito net construction.
Backpacks
A sturdy, well-designed backpack should be used to carry gear. Reflective material should be sewn onto the back of each backpack. Iron Horse Safety Specialties (800-323-5889, http://www.fabric.ironhorsesafety.com) sells red-orange reflective material for daytime visibility and reflective silver material for nighttime reflectivity. On serious jungle treks, porters are often present. This frees expedition members to carry much lighter loads.
Backpack for Porter
An internal-frame backpack with a capacity of 49.2 to 65.6 L (3000 to 4000 inches3) is a good size. It should have external pockets for quick access to liter-sized water bottles.
Indigenous peoples are accustomed to carrying packs and hauling loads with a strap, known as a tumpline, slung over the forehead or chest. Many natives, including Amazonian Indians, dislike using the shoulder straps that come as standard equipment on backpacks. Given enough straps, almost any native porter can quickly rig a satisfactory tumpline on a backpack. If you do not have extra straps, tribesmen reared in the tropical forest will strip bark from saplings and fashion an adequate tumpline in minutes (Figure 43-5).
Personal Pack
A daypack with a capacity of 19.7 to 32.8 L (1200 to 2000 inches3) is useful for carrying a camera, snack food, and other gear that must be kept handy. A waterproof liner will keep perspiration from wicking into the bag and wetting everything inside. The pack should have two outside pockets for quick access to liter-sized water bottles.
Pack for River Trips
A durable, waterproof “dry” bag, used by river runners, is worth considering, especially if the trip will involve spending days or weeks at a time in dugout canoes or rubber rafts. Most of these packs, however, cannot stand up to the demands of long-distance overland trekking. The straps tend to be uncomfortable and frequently rip out on the trail.
Other Useful Items
Antifogging Solution for Eyeglasses
Antifog solution, available from dive shops, reduces humidity-induced fogging of glasses.
Batteries
Alkaline batteries should be brought from home. Batteries purchased in Third World nations do not last long and often leak.
Binoculars
The traveler who is an avid bird-watcher or enjoys watching butterflies or seeking out orchids high on distant limbs will want to pack a pair of binoculars that are lightweight, compact, shockproof, and waterproof or water resistant.
Camera Equipment
Water-resistant point-and-shoot digital cameras are available, as are rugged, high-performance, water-resistant professional digital cameras such as the Pentax K-7. Because of their proved track record of reliability, older-style film cameras with mechanical shutters are useful in regions of high humidity. Professional film with an ISO of 200 is ideal for use in low-light conditions of the jungle and much preferred over slower film.
Camera Case or Bag
Hard-bodied Pelican cases are waterproof and virtually indestructible. The silver-gray color cuts down on heat absorption and is preferred in hot climates. The cases are ideal for rafting or canoe trips but bulky for trekking. On the trail, waterproof “dry” bags protect equipment.
Camp Soap
A biodegradable soap should be used. Campsuds soap, in a leak-proof Nalgene bottle, works in hot, cold, fresh, or salt water and cleans dishes, clothing, hair, and skin.
Candles
Electricity tends to fail at unpredictable times in small towns and even in larger cities in Third World countries. Travelers should carry dripless candles. Spring-loaded candle lanterns should be avoided because they give off an anemic light, gum up, get crushed or broken, and basically waste space in the pack.
Cup and Plate
A large Lexan polycarbonate cup is unbreakable, does not retain taste or odor, and serves the role of cup, bowl, and plate. Travelers who want an actual plate should buy one made of indestructible Melamine.
Duct Tape
High-quality duct tape, such as Duck brand, is excellent for protecting existing blisters and for preventing blisters from developing on areas prone to blister formation when applied before trekking. Although a number of products are marketed to prevent blister formation and protect skin once blisters have formed, in my experience nothing beats duct tape. Also, duct tape is useful for removing the urticating hairs of caterpillar envenoming (see Venomous Moths, Butterflies, and Caterpillars, later).
Ear Plugs
Travel in the tropics often involves flying in incredibly loud helicopters, cargo planes, or short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft. Sponge ear plugs that roll up and fit in the ear canal offer inexpensive, effective protection against hearing damage. Be sure to buy these in sealed packets of two per packet and not in bulk. Once the packet is opened, sponge ear plugs quickly absorb moisture in the humid tropics, making them difficult to insert into the ear canal if exposed to ambient humidity for more than a few hours.
Fishing Supplies
For additional “food insurance” when traveling in extremely isolated regions, the jungle traveler should carry 22.9 m (75 feet) of 20-lb-test fishing line, at least two 30.5-cm (12-inch) steel leaders with swivels, and a few size No. 4 hooks. Travel rods that break down for compact carrying and spin-cast reels should be considered for sport fishing or adding fresh meat to the daily provisions. Throughout the tropics, most species of fish find Rat-L-Trap lures, particularly the chrome and blue combination, irresistible. The hooks that come standard with Rat-L-Trap lures are not sturdy enough to withstand the hard mouth and powerful bite of tropical freshwater fish. Replace these hooks with 3× or 4× strong, size No. 4, treble hooks.
Garbage Bags
Two heavy duty 49.2-L (13-gal) capacity plastic garbage bags (or dry bags) can keep dirty boots isolated from clean items in the backpack.
Dry Bags
Compression dry bags are excellent for storing items that must stay dry, such as bedding and clothes for camp use. Outdoor Research and SealLine dry sacks are high-quality products available from REI. See-through organizer bags help reduce clutter and minimize the risk for misplacing small items.
Headlamp
Battery-operated headlamps offer hands-free convenience at night for reading or going to the latrine. The Petzl Tikka LED Headlamp weighs a mere 76.5 g (2.7 oz) (with batteries) and has a battery life of 24 hours at 21° C (70° F).
Inflatable Cushion or Pillow
A small, self-inflating cushion made with a low-slip polyester fabric top and durable nylon bottom is recommended for sitting in a dugout canoe or aluminum boat.
Insect Repellent
Insect repellent containing 15% to 30% N,N-diethyl-3-methyl-benzamide (DEET) repels mosquitoes, flies, ticks, chiggers, fleas, and gnats, but not no-see-ums. Formulations (often called “jungle juice”) should not contain higher than 30% DEET, because they may pose health hazards (see Chapter 47). Relatively new to the American market, picaridin in the 20% formulation repels mosquitoes, flies, ticks, chiggers, fleas, and offers some protection against annoying no-see-ums. (I have found the 7% formulation of picaridin ineffective in the rain forest setting; it should be avoided.) Picaridin does not damage plastics or synthetic materials, does not have the “wet/sticky” feel of products containing DEET, and can purchased in an odorless formulation.
No-see-ums, which are tiny gnats that abound throughout the tropics of the Americas, are the most common source of insect annoyance in many regions. They are active at sunset and attack humans emerging from jungle streams. No-see-ums cannot bite through even the thinnest cloth and are usually inhibited by Skin So Soft (SSS), which appears to have a slight chemical repellent effect, but more likely works by drowning the tiny gnats in oil. SSS is not effective against ticks, fleas, flies, and chiggers and offers little protection against mosquitoes. SSS should be applied liberally and often to the wrists, knuckles, bare ankles, face, ears, and scalp. Men with full beards seem to be especially troubled by tiny gnats and may benefit by applying small amounts of SSS to the beard area. Picaridin (see above) in the 20% formulation offers some protection against no-see-ums.
Permethrin kills or stuns insects that land on clothing that has been impregnated with this product. Permethrin is safe, is highly effective, and persists even after extensive washing of garments (see Chapter 84). It is effective against insects when used on mosquito netting, even when the netting has sizable holes and tears.
Laminated Map
Accurate maps exist for most regions on Earth. From the best map available, travelers should laminate photocopied portions that are relevant to a particular itinerary (see Rescue Strategies, later).
Machete
A Collins-style machete (Figure 43-6) is the single essential tool for jungle survival and for the many tasks in camp and on the trail that require steel with a sharp edge. Do not purchase a model with a hand guard. A hand guard serves only for protection against an opponent’s blade when used as a weapon in combat; it does not offer added protection when the machete is used as a cutting implement.23 A newly purchased machete may have a pointed, sharp tip and a cutting edge that extends all the way from tip to handle. To reduce the likelihood of accidental injury, use a metal file to dull the tip of the machete and also to flatten the cutting edge from the handle to approximately 2 inches. It is hazardous to use a machete in the rain or when cutting wet grass, because the weapon may fly out of the hand. Also, when cutting brush, the person often encounters saw grass (see Figure 43-4). The resulting skin lacerations, which are not noticed at first because saw grass is razor sharp, may take a week or two to heal. Because of the risks involved, an experienced individual should be in charge of transporting and using the machete. For added safety, a machete should be carried in a sheath.
Matches or Cigarette Lighter
Waterproof, windproof Hurricane Matches light when damp and stay lit for several seconds, even in the strongest wind. Many jungle travelers prefer a butane cigarette lighter with a piezo ignition system.
Pen
J.L. Darling Corp (2614 Pacific Hwy E, Tacoma, WA 98424-1017; 253-922-5000; http://www.riteintherain.com) sells professional quality outdoor writing products, including Rite in the Rain shirt-pocket field notebooks, travel journals, and all-weather pens that write upside down without pumping, underwater, over grease, and in hot and cold temperature extremes.
Pocket Tool
The Leatherman Super Tool is recommended for jungle travel and survival and features needle-nosed pliers and 12 locking implements.
Wide-Mouth Water Bottles
Essential gear includes two quart- or liter-sized wide-mouth water bottles. Bisphenol A–free products are now available. Narrow-mouth, screw-top 56.7-g (2-oz), heavy-duty bottles come in handy for carrying a salt and pepper mixture to add flavor to boiled plantains and yucca. Nalgene products are legendary; whatever you put in a Nalgene bottle will stay there and not leak into your pack.
Razor or Battery-Operated Shaver
Both men and women should carry lightweight disposable razors. Most men find that lightweight, AA battery-operated shavers give two shaves a day for up to 2 weeks before requiring a change of batteries.
Spoon
Knife-spoon-fork sets are unnecessary. A knife blade and a good tablespoon made of either Lexan polycarbonate or stainless steel are sufficient for eating.
Sport Sponge
A camp towel, made of microporous material, is lightweight, compact, and superabsorbent; it replaces the cotton towel. With the Cascade Designs PackTowel or similar brand, the body and even hair can be dried much more quickly than with a traditional towel.
Sunglasses
Sunglasses should be polarized with full ultraviolet light protection. Many travelers prefer sunglasses with red-tinted lenses. Because red is the complement of green, these lenses make the jungle foliage stand out intensely and sharply, with enhanced contrast and depth of field. Retainers hold eyeglasses securely during vigorous activity.
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