The importance of avoiding travel and seeking shelter during storms and extreme cold cannot be overemphasized. The additive chilling effect of wind when added to cold is impressive. Wind-chill charts (Figure 41-1) show the relationship between actual temperature, wind velocity, and “effective” temperature at the body surface. The term wind chill refers to the rate of cooling; the actual temperature reached is no lower than it would be if wind were absent (unless evaporation of liquid is occurring at the body surface). The increase in heat loss as the wind rises is not linear; rather, it is more proportional to the square root of the wind speed.

FIGURE 41-1 Windchill chart.

(From Bowman WD, Johe DH, American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, National Ski Patrol System [United States]: Outdoor emergency care: Comprehensive prehospital care for nonurban settings, ed 4, Boston, 2003, Jones & Bartlett.)

At moderate ambient temperatures, the body’s core temperature is kept stable by constant small adjustments in metabolic rate, muscular activity, sweating, and skin circulation. When the body is chilled, automatic and semiautomatic mechanisms increase internal heat production by slightly increasing metabolic rate, shivering, and semiconscious activities (e.g., foot stamping), and they reduce heat loss by diminishing sweat production and shell circulation. The person has a strong urge to curl up into a ball, thereby reducing the body’s surface area. At the same time, the brain tells the body to decrease heat loss by adding insulation and wind protection, seeking shelter, and increasing heat gain by increasing muscular activity, building a fire, seeking sunlight, and eating.

When the body overheats, these actions are reversed. The body increases heat loss by increasing circulation to the skin and extremities and by increasing sweating. These mechanisms require more water, which stimulates the thirst response. Heat production is decreased as a result of a feeling of sluggishness and languor, which leads to reduction in physical activity and in the amount of heat produced by the muscles. The brain tells the body to decrease heat gain and to increase heat loss by providing shelter from the sun, removing clothing, and fanning itself.

Cold Weather Survival

Body temperature in a cold environment is maintained by decreasing body heat loss, increasing internal body heat production, or adding heat from the outside. The most efficient of these methods is the conservation of body heat by decreasing heat loss, generally with the use of clothing and shelter.

Decreasing Body Heat Loss

Heat loss from conduction and convection can be prevented by interposing substances of low thermal conductivity, such as clothing made of insulating materials, between the body and the outside air. Clothing creates a microclimate of warmed, still air next to the skin surface. Clothing’s value depends on how well it traps air, the thickness of the air layer, and whether these qualities are reduced by wetting (Table 41-1). Traditional insulating materials are wool, down, foam, and older synthetics such as Orlon, Dacron, and polyester. Wool retains warmth when wet because of a moderately low wicking action and its ability to suspend water vapor within its fibers without affecting its low thermal conductance. It can absorb a considerable amount of water without feeling wet, but is heavier than synthetics, “itchy,” and more difficult to dry. However, its toughness and durability make it a good choice for garments that are subject to hard wear, such as trousers, mittens, and socks. Cotton, particularly denim and corduroy, is a poor insulator. It dries slowly because of its low evaporative ability; high thermal conductance is further increased by wetting. Cotton has no place in the backcountry in cold weather.

TABLE 41-1 Fiber Characteristics of Natural and Synthetic Fibers

Orlon, Dacron, acrylic, and polyester were developed to duplicate wool’s properties without wool’s high cost and other perceived drawbacks. They traditionally have been used for hats, shirts, sweaters, and long underwear. They are almost as warm and not as itchy as wool, and evaporate moisture better. A number of newer fabrics are woven from fibers that have lower thermal conductance, greater insulating ability, and better wicking action than do traditional fibers. Examples include polypropylene and treated polyesters such as Capilene, Thermax, and ThermaStat. Polyester is also made into pile and fleece; these are light, dry easily, trap air well, and stay warm when wet because the fibers do not absorb water. Examples include Polartec, Borglite, Polarplus, and Synchilla. Fibers used as fillers in quilted garments, such as parkas, include hollow synthetics, such as Hollofil II and Quallofil, which were designed on the basis of the principles of reindeer hair. Microfibers that provide good insulating ability with less bulk include Thinsulate, Thermoloft, and Thermolite. One of the newer fibers, Microloft, is supposed to be warmer than down of the same weight. New synthetics come on the market frequently, so one should consult trade journals and “gear” issues of outdoor magazines.

The layering principle of clothing is effective for preventing both chilling and overheating. Multiple layers of clothing provide multiple layers of microclimate. Layers are added as necessary to prevent chilling or subtracted to prevent overheating that would cause perspiring. Because water conducts heat 25 to 32 times faster than air at the same temperature, clothing that is wet with perspiration or water may cause rapid heat loss from conduction and evaporation. The need to add or subtract layers should be anticipated before either chilling or heavy perspiring occurs.

Clothing should be easily adjustable, sweaters should be closeable from the waist to the neck with a sturdy zipper, and outer layers should be cut full enough to allow for the expansion of inner layers to their full thicknesses. Zippers in the axillary, lateral chest, and lateral thigh areas are useful for ventilation.

Loss of heat from convection can be prevented by wearing windproof outer garments. Typical examples include a parka with a hood and a pair of windproof pants (regular or bib style) or ski warm-up pants.

Loss of heat from infrared radiation can also be prevented by insulation and emphasizing the proper covering of body parts with a large surface area–to–volume ratio. The uncovered head can dissipate up to 70% of body heat production at an ambient temperature of −16° C (5° F), partly because the body does not reduce blood supply to the head and neck in cold weather as it does to the extremities. High heat loss through radiation during cold nights can be decreased by sleeping in a tent or under a tarpaulin instead of out in the open.

Coverage for the head, ears, hands, and feet should not restrict circulation. Developed initially for skiers, a tubular neck gaiter can be pulled up over the back of the head to form a hood or up over the lower face to form a mask. In addition to head and neck protection, this device also blocks some of the heat that would otherwise be lost by the bellows action of clothing that is caused by body motion.

Heat loss from the respiratory tract can be diminished by avoiding overexertion and overheating that occur with excessively heavy breathing. When it is extremely cold, inspired air can be warmed by pulling the parka hood out in front of the face to form a “frost tunnel.”

Heat loss from conduction occurs as a result of direct contact with a colder object. Sitting on a pack, a foam pad, a log, or another object of lower heat conductivity is preferable to sitting in the snow or on a cold rock. At low temperatures, bare skin freezes to metal; avoid this by wearing light gloves when handling metal objects. Gasoline and other liquids with freezing points lower than that of water can cause frostbite if they are accidentally poured on the skin at low temperatures. During bivouacs in snow shelters, avoid contact with the snow by sitting on a foam pad or backpack or by improvising a mattress of evergreen boughs, grass, or dry leaves. In cold or windy weather, an injured person needs windproof insulating material under as well as over and around the body.

Heat loss from conduction and evaporation can be lessened by avoiding wetting and by changing to dry clothes or drying out quickly when wet. Ideally, outer clothing should be windproof, and it should not collect snow. It should shed water but not be waterproof, because waterproof garments prevent the evaporation of sweat; laminated fabrics such as Gore-Tex and its relatives are designed for this purpose.

Dressing for Cold Weather

Anyone who ventures outdoors in cold weather should have enough clothing of the proper kind, either on the body or in the backpack, for the most extreme environmental conditions that are likely to be experienced. Although building fires, carrying emergency shelters, and improvising survival shelters are discussed at length later in this chapter, the process of dressing for cold weather should be approached with the idea that clothing may become the only shelter and endogenous heat production the only heat available. Clothing and other types of insulating materials should be selected with the idea that they need to keep the body warm and dry even during periods of inactivity.

First Layer

Second Layer

Shirt

Shirts should be made of light, soft wool or a durable synthetic such as acrylic, and they should have long sleeves. Large breast pockets with buttons or Velcro fasteners are handy to carry such items as sunglasses and a compass. For ventilation, the front of the shirt should open completely (i.e., it should have a button or zipper closure). A turtleneck feature protects the neck, as do neck warmers and mufflers that can be pulled up to protect the lower face.

Pants

Wool or pile pants are best and should have pockets that are easily accessible for hand warming. Pile pants should have reinforcements at the knees and buttocks and a zipper or Velcro fly for males. Full or partial lateral leg zippers are convenient, especially for removing pants without removing boots.

Foot gear

The type of boot chosen depends on the type of activity and the expected environmental temperatures. For moderate conditions, sturdy leather climbing boots made of full-thickness leather and that are 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) in height, that have rubber lug soles, and that are roomy enough to accommodate the desired numbers of socks are ideal. Boots made of leather and fabric (e.g., Gore-Tex) are lighter and suitable for trail hiking, but they may not be as durable for rough terrain.

Boots must be long enough, their toes high enough, and their laces tight enough so that the wearer’s toes do not strike the inside of the front of the boot during downhill walking. Laces should also be tight enough to prevent the heel from moving up and down during walking but not so tight that circulation is restricted and the toes cannot wiggle easily.

For colder temperatures, double boots are preferable. These can be all-leather boots, or they can have outer shells of plastic or nylon with inner boots of felt or foam. All-leather versions may be hard to find. The Canadian type of shoe pack with a removable inner felt liner is a good choice for light snowshoeing and other nontechnical outdoor activities in the cold. Special double ski boots are available for ski touring, Telemark skiing, and ski mountaineering, depending on the type of binding selected.

Hat

Hats should be of the stocking variety; made of wool, pile, Orlon, polypropylene, or wool/polypropylene; and large enough to cover the ears. A small bill feature is desirable to shade the eyes. “Bomber” caps with bills and pull-down earflaps and “Andean” caps with ear coverings are preferred by some. Some arrangement should be provided to protect the face from cold wind, as with a balaclava configuration or a separate face mask. A useful combination for very cold and windy weather is a ski hat together with a neck gaiter that can be pulled up to cover most of the lower face; the parka hood can then be pulled over the head from behind.

Third Layer

Parka

The parka can be a standard ski or mountain parka filled with down, Dacron, Quallofil, Thinsulate, or another lofting material. A more versatile combination is two separate garments: a pile jacket plus a water-resistant shell. For snow camping, a pile jacket with a thin outer cover of nylon (i.e., three-season, squall, or warm-up jacket) may be preferred, because, unlike an uncovered pile jacket, it does not collect snow when it is worn without the shell. The shell should have a hood with a drawstring, a two-way zipper with an overlying weather flap closed with full-length Velcro (in case of zipper failure, very cold hands, or upper extremity injury), a cloth flap to protect the chin from the metal zipper pull, armpit or lateral chest zippers for ventilation, and at least four outer pockets plus one or two inside pockets to contain frequently needed items (e.g., gloves, compass, map, sunglasses, neck gaiter). Outer pockets should be located where they can be reached while wearing a backpack with a fastened waist belt. The shell should be fingertip length unless bibs are worn. Zippers should have extra-long tabs added to facilitate closure with cold or mittened hands.

Pockets with horizontal openings may close with Velcro, but those with vertical openings should close with zippers. Because the parka is anchored by the shoulders, when using one hand, it is generally easier to pull a vertical zipper down rather than up. In some brands of parkas, vertical zippers are pulled down to close the pockets; in other brands, they are pulled up. The authors prefer the former type: the danger of losing pocket contents as a result of difficulty with closing a zipper is worse than any perceived delay caused by difficulty with opening a zipper.

For ventilation, there should be zippered openings at the armpits. These should be large enough so that the parka can be converted into a vest-like garment during warm conditions by inserting the wearer’s arms through the openings and tucking the sleeves inside the parka. Because these zippers usually perform more easily when they are pulled from the distal to the proximal direction, this direction should close them; increasing wind protection is usually more urgent than decreasing it (i.e., freezing is more dangerous than sweating).

Wind pants

Wind pants should be light and water repellent; a laminated garment such as Gore-Tex is a good choice. Long and zippered side openings at the bottoms are useful to permit the donning of pants without removing boots as well as for ventilation and access to inner pants’ pockets.

Hand gear

Mittens and gloves provide hand protection from trauma and cold. Because survival depends to some extent on normal hand dexterity, gloves or mittens should be available to protect the hands from cuts, bruises, blisters, and possible resulting infections. In temperate weather, these can be light and unlined leather gloves.

One of the more serious and still unsolved cold weather problems is how to keep fingers warm while leaving them sufficiently unhampered to do work. Mittens are warmer than gloves, because fingers that touch each other warm each other. However, even thin mittens do not allow for delicate finger movements. An important part of the cold-finger solution is to prevent core cooling and compensatory extremity vasoconstriction by addressing core temperature stabilization through exercise, eating, and wearing enough layers on the trunk.

A common method is to wear a pair of thin gloves of polypropylene, silk, thin wool, or polyester/Lycra inside a wool or pile mitten covered with a windproof and water-resistant shell. For delicate finger work, the gloved hand is removed from the mitten, the work done as fast as possible, and then the hand returned to the mitten. However, because insulating materials insulate in both directions, when inside a warm mitten, cold fingers wearing gloves will not rewarm as fast as cold, bare fingers. Therefore, another solution is to use bare fingers, which will perform faster than gloved fingers, work as fast as possible, and then return them to warm mittens periodically until the task is done. However, this is not practical when working with metal in very cold weather. Another approach is to keep a pair of gloves warm in a pocket and put them on after removing the hands from mittens. Polyester/Lycra gloves are easier to don than are many other types of thin gloves.

Excellent three-layer mitten sets include windproof shells with leather palms and two sets of removable pile mittens, at least one of which is fastened to the inner shell with Velcro. Another good system is a thin glove liner inside a heavy wool mitten (e.g., Dachstein, rag wool, wool/polypropylene) inside a Gore-Tex shell.

An option that provides more finger dexterity in moderately cold conditions is a polypropylene glove liner inside a fingerless wool glove inside a shell. A newer combination is a fingerless wool glove inside a wool mitten that has a horizontal slit in the distal palm (i.e., Cordova’s rag wool convertible gloves). The distal tip of the mitten can be folded backward dorsally and secured with a Velcro patch, thereby allowing the hand that is covered with the fingerless wool glove to be exposed through the slit. However, more layers and increasing complexity mean more difficulty doing delicate hand tasks.

Shells should have easily accessible nose warmers of pile or mouton on their backs, they should be long enough to cover the wrists, and they should have palms of soft leather or sticky fabric for securely holding ice axes and ski poles.

Gaiters and overboots

Gaiters, which are long nylon tubes that cover the lower leg and upper part of the boot, are designed to keep snow, sand, and gravel out of boots and socks. They extend upward to just below the knee, open at the side or in front with a zipper or Velcro, have a strap that fits under the boot sole to keep them snug on the boots, and a drawstring at the top to hold them up. Gaiters with a front opening that is closed by a wide Velcro strap are the easiest to put on and take off. Shorter versions that extend to just above the ankle are adequate for summer mountaineering and may be preferable for cross-country skiers who need access for tightening boot buckles before descents. High-altitude mountaineering requires special insulated overboots or lined gaiters.

Fourth Layer

The previous three layers are usually worn on the body. A fourth layer should be easily available in the pack; this layer should include quilted or pile pants and a jacket or vest.

Rain gear

In moderate climates or in spring conditions, when rain and wet snow may be encountered, outer garments of Gore-Tex or similar material should be used. For maritime climates and during seasons of heavy rain, it may be better to have two separate sets of outer garments: a light, thin, windproof nylon jacket and pants and a waterproof (i.e., coated nylon) jacket and pants.

Vapor barrier systems

Waterproof garments and sleeping bag liners worn close to the skin are favored by many because they can prevent the wetting of outer clothing by sweat that might result in decreased insulating capacity. There also is claimed to be some reduction in water consumption requirements with such items. These types of vapor barriers seem to work better in very cold weather than at moderate temperatures. A light garment of polypropylene or similar material should be worn next to the skin, with the waterproof garment worn over this. Vapor barrier systems probably should be tried out in the field in nonsurvival conditions before being relied on in severe weather. Persons with hyperhidrosis and those who dislike clammy skin may not feel comfortable with such garments.

Shelter

Summer Emergency Shelters

When faced with an unplanned night out, one’s first step should be to locate a place out of the wind. Getting behind a rock, moving to the lee side of a ridge, going down into the tree line, or even turning one’s back to the wind can make a difference. Eliminating windchill allows one to concentrate on dealing with ambient air temperature by using spare clothing and natural insulation and by starting a fire. Look for a space into which you can crawl, such as a rocky overhang or a space under dense evergreens or fallen logs. Experienced and prepared individuals will have some type of waterproof material (e.g., plastic bag, tube tent, tarp) into or under which they can crawl as well. Bright-colored (i.e., orange or red) materials are easier for searchers to spot. Getting out of the wind, rain, or snow quickly and being able to stay as warm and dry as possible are vital. When one is wet and cold, it may be very difficult—and sometimes impossible—to rewarm and dry out.

Space Blankets and Bags

Space blankets and bags are lightweight, inexpensive, and compact, but they are of limited value in an emergency. Consider a typical scenario in which it is late in the day; it is cold, rainy, and windy; and the survivor is injured, hypothermic, or both. A space blanket is frequently difficult to get out of its package, to unfold, and to manage in windy conditions. Depending on the brand, space blankets are usually too small to fully encase an adult. When wrapped up, the survivor will find that a space blanket makes a shelter that is so noisy that even an approaching aircraft or ground search party may not be heard. Space blankets also tear easily when they are nicked or punctured.

The space bag has the same flaws as does the space blanket except that it is easier to encase an individual and for that person to stay enclosed.

Thermal Blankets

Thermal blankets are similar to space blankets, but they are made from much heavier material that is reinforced with fiberglass threads and that has a grommet in each corner. They can be used as body wraps, but again, depending on the size of the person, they are often too small to encase an adult. Some survivors have attempted to use a thermal blanket as a shelter roof by tying lines to each corner and then stretching the blanket between various anchor points. In benign conditions, this may work; however, with any wind or snow loading, the grommets quickly tear or pull out.

Tube Tents

Tube tents are usually about 2.4 m (8 feet) long and provide a tubular shelter that is 0.9 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 feet) high, depending on the brand. They can be pulled over the body to provide a quick shelter or pitched as a “pup tent.” To do this, find two anchors (e.g., rocks, trees) that are the proper distance apart, tie a line to one of them, spread the tent out along the length of the line, run the line through it, and then tie off the other end of the line. The height of the line should be such that the tent can be spread out to accommodate the occupant. To avoid ripping, the tent plastic should be 3 to 4 mils thick (1 mil = 0.0251 mm [0.001 inch]). Tube tents can be improvised from two plastic 55-gallon drum liners, which are 3 to 4 mil thick, or from large, heavy-grade, household trash bags by opening up the closed end of one bag, sliding it into the open end of the second bag, and then duct taping the bags together (Figure 41-2).

FIGURE 41-2 Two large plastic bags can be taped together in tandem and used with a line to form a tube tent.

(Courtesy Peter Kummerfeldt.)

Tarpaulins

Sheets of Visqueen plastic, painters’ drop cloths, large pieces of canvas, or other similar materials can be used to erect a wide variety of effective survival shelters. “Blue crinkly” plastic tarps made of a laminated polyethylene weave are readily available and inexpensive; they can be purchased from most hardware stores, they come in a variety of sizes, and have grommets inserted along the edges. A tarp, no smaller than 2.4 × 3 m (8 × 10 feet), is needed to protect an adult. Tarps of this size weigh about 0.7 kg (26 oz) and roll up into a tube that is 15 cm (6 inches) in diameter by 30 cm (12 inches) long, which is convenient to carry tied to the outside of a daypack or a fanny pack. To save valuable time in a survival situation, tie 3 m (10 feet) of parachute cord to each corner grommet ahead of time.

Tarps can be erected in a number of shelter styles, depending on weather conditions (Figure 41-3). To erect a lean-to shelter, first select a line that is long enough to stretch between two trees that are far enough apart for the tarp to be stretched tight. With the use of a timber hitch, tie off one end of the line to one of the trees at about chest height. Then, rather than passing the line itself through the grommet eyes, insert a small loop of the line through the first grommet eye, and secure the loop with a short stick that is thrust through it on the opposite side (Figure 41-3, B). Repeat this process for each grommet, stretching the tarp tight each time. After the tarp is attached to the line, tie off the other end of the line to the second tree, with the line stretched as tightly as possible. The lower edge of the tarp is then pegged to the ground or anchored with large stones or a length of log. When making pegs, select a length of wood that is 3.8 to 5 cm (1.5 to 2 inches) in diameter and that is twice as long as needed. With a saw, make one 45-degree cut at the midpoint of the stick. In this way, one cut produces two pegs, both of which are sharp enough to be driven into the ground by pounding their blunt ends with the back of an ax head or a large rock. Fill in the sides of the lean-to with vegetation.

FIGURE 41-3 Four types of shelters that can be made from a tarp. A, A simple lean-to. B, An illustration of a method for attaching a line to a tarp. C, A pup-tent type of shelter. D, A lean-to shelter with an eave. E, A triangular tarp shelter. F, Creating a button for attaching a line to a tarp without grommets. G, Attaching a line to the neck of the button with the use of a girth or a clove hitch.

(Courtesy Peter Kummerfeldt.)

If a fire will be built in front of the lean-to, the front opening should be parallel to the prevailing wind so that the smoke will be carried away from the shelter. If not, the back edge of the lean-to should point to the prevailing wind.

To erect a pup-tent type of shelter (Figure 41-3, C), tie a line between two trees, drape the tarp over it, and peg down the sides. Block the ends with vegetation or personal equipment.

A lean-to with an eave (Figure 41-3, D) gives more protection from rain and snow than does one without an eave. Instead of attaching the long edge of the tarp to the line between the two trees, drape the tarp over the line so that several feet are on the other side, and then tie the two corners to pegs for a down-sloping eave.

A triangular tarp shelter can be erected rapidly and provides good protection (Figure 41-3, E). It requires three pegs and an anchor point on a tree.

Plastic Bag Shelters

Large, heavy-grade (3 to 4 mil), orange, plastic, 208-L (55-gal) drum liners make good short-term emergency shelters. Having one to crawl into quickly will speed warming and drying as well as shelter the survivor from further wetness and chilling. However, total enclosure in a plastic bag is both uncomfortable and dangerous as a result of increased wetting from the condensation of water vapor in exhaled air and perspiration plus poor ventilation, with a lack of oxygen and buildup of carbon dioxide. To minimize these problems, cut an opening in the bottom end of the bag that is just large enough for your head, and then pass the bag over your head so that your face is at the opening (Figure 41-4). If you get too warm, you can push your head through the hole. When creating the hole, cut the plastic at 90 degrees to the fold to reduce the likelihood of the bag tearing along the seam.

FIGURE 41-4 Lean-to shelter. The sides should be closed with brush or snow and a fire built in front.

Winter and Cold Weather Emergency Shelters

Everyone who spends time in the winter wilderness should practice the construction of several types of emergency survival shelters before such shelters may be needed. The functions of a shelter are to provide an extension of the microclimate of still, warm air that is furnished by clothing; to contain the heat generated by the body, a fire, or other heat source; and to protect the individual from snow, rain, and wind. A properly designed shelter should allow easy and rapid construction with simple tools and should provide good protection from wind, rain, and snowfall. The type and size of shelter depend on the presence or absence of snow and its depth; on the natural features of the landscape, including the availability of natural building and insulating materials; and on whether firewood or a stove and fuel are available. If external heat cannot be provided, a shelter must be small and windproof to preserve body heat.

If possible, a shelter should be constructed in the timber to provide protection from the wind and access to firewood. Generally shelters partway up the side of a ridge are warmer than those in a valley, because cold air tends to collect in valleys and basins during the night. Exposed windy ridges above the timberline are cold. Areas that are exposed to flooding (e.g., drainages, dry riverbeds), rockfalls, cornice falls, or avalanches or that are under dead trees or limbs should be avoided. If open water is available, the camp may be located nearby, although in nonsurvival conditions camps should be at least 61 m (200 feet) from bodies of water. To avoid drifting snow, tents and shelters should be located with the entrance parallel to the prevailing wind.

Snow is a good insulator (Table 41-2). Its heat conductivity is 1/10,000 that of copper, and its insulating ability superior to wool felt, so snow shelters may be warmer than other types of constructed shelters as long as the inhabitants remain dry. Contact with the snow or cold ground is avoided by sitting on a foam pad, dry leaves, grass, a backpack, or (in survival conditions only) a bed of evergreen boughs.

TABLE 41-2 Thermal Conductivity of Various Substances

Substance	Conductivity*	Temperature Measured (° C)
Air	0.006	0
Down	0.01	20
Polyester (hollow)	0.016	—
Polyester (solid)	0.019	—
Snow (old)	0.115	0
Cork	0.128	30
Sawdust	0.14	30
Wool felt	0.149	40
Cardboard	0.5	20
Wood	0.8	20
Dry sand	0.93	20
Water	1.4	12
Brick	1.5	20
Concrete	2.2	20
Ice	5.7	0