Pain, agitation, delirium, and neuromuscular blockade in the intensive care unit (ICU)





This chapter will review recommendations from the 2013 Society of Critical Care Medicine and recently published research 1 ( Fig. 22.1 ).




Figure 22.1


Pain, agitation, delirium.


Pain





  • Greater than 50% of intensive care unit (ICU) survivors report significant pain during their ICU stay



  • Common causes of pain in the ICU: acute trauma, injury or burns, postoperative pain, cancer pain, invasive procedures, and routine nursing care such as endotracheal tube suctioning, wound care, and tube insertion



  • Short-term consequences of unrelieved pain: catabolic hypermetabolism, increased circulating catecholamines, impaired tissue perfusion, and decreased immune function



  • Long-term consequences of unrelieved pain: chronic pain, lower health-related quality of life, neuropathic pain, and posttraumatic stress disorder



  • Analgosedation: analgesia-first or analgesia-based sedation (treat with an opioid before a sedative)



  • Assessment: assess pain q4–6h using either the Behavioral Pain Scale or Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool ( Tables 22.1 and 22.2 )



    Table 22.1

    Behavioral Pain Scale (BPS) a














































    ITEM DESCRIPTION SCORE



    • Facial expression




    • Relaxed




    • 1




    • Party tightened (e.g., brow lowering)




    • 2




    • Fully tightened (e.g., eyelid closing)




    • 3




    • Grimacing




    • 4




    • Upper limbs




    • No movement




    • 1




    • Partly bent




    • 2




    • Fully bent with finger flexion




    • 3




    • Permanently retracted




    • 4




    • Compliance with ventilation




    • Tolerating movement




    • 1




    • Coughing but tolerating ventilation most of the time




    • 2




    • Fighting ventilator




    • 3




    • Unable to control ventilation




    • 4


    a A BPS score >5 indicates significant pain



    Table 22.2

    Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool (CPOT) a
























































    INDICATOR DESCRIPTION SCORE
    Facial expression Relaxed 0
    Tense 1
    Grimacing 2
    Body movements Absence 0
    Protection 1
    Restlessness 2
    Muscle tension Relaxed 0
    Tense, rigid 1
    Very tense, rigid 2
    Vent compliance
    or
    vocalization
    Tolerating 0
    Coughing 1
    Fighting 2
    Talking normally 0
    Sighing, moaning 1
    Crying out, sobbing 2

    a A CPOT score ≥3 indicates significant pain




  • Pharmacologic management ( Tables 22.3 and 22.4 )



    Table 22.3

    Opiates Commonly Used in the ICU

    Drugs without brand names are denoted by generic name only

































    DRUG USUAL DOSE PD/PK (IV) METABOLISM COMMENTS



    • Fentanyl



    • (Sublimaze)




    • Start at 0.5 mcg/kg/h



    • Titrate by 0.25 mcg/kg/h q15min to CPOT <3 or BPS ≤5



    • Usual maximum: 5 mcg/kg/h




    • Onset: 1–2 min



    • Duration: 0.5–1 h



    • Half-life: 2–4 h




    • Hepatic CYP3A4 major substrate




    • Accumulates in hepatic failure



    • Prolonged half-life with infusion duration



    • Muscle rigidity <1%




    • Morphine




    • Start at 2 mg/h



    • Titrate by 2 mg/h Q15min to CPOT <3 or BPS ≤5



    • Usual maximum: 20 mg/h




    • Onset: 5–15 min



    • Duration: 3–5 h



    • Half-life: 3–4 h




    • Glucuronidation




    • Hypotension and bradycardia from histamine release



    • Active metabolites, morphine-3-glucuronide (45–55%) and morphine-6 glucuronide (10–15%), accumulate in renal failure




    • Hydromorphone (Dilaudid)




    • Start at 0.25 mg/h



    • Titrate by 0.25 mg/h q15min to CPOT <3 or BPS ≤5



    • Usual maximum: 2 mg/h




    • Onset: 5–15 min



    • Duration: 3–4 h



    • Half-life: 2–3 h




    • Glucuronidation




    • Accumulates in hepatic failure




    • Remifentanil (Ultiva)




    • LD 1.5 mcg/kg; followed by 0.5 mcg/kg/h



    • Titrate by 0.5 mcg/kg/h q5min to CPOT <3 or BPS ≤5



    • Usual maximum: 15 mcg/kg/h




    • Onset: 1–3 min



    • Duration: 3–10 min



    • Half-life: 10–20 min




    • Blood and tissue esterases




    • Muscle rigidity >10%



    • Rebound pain and withdrawal symptoms due to quick offset


    BPS , Behavioral Pain Scale; CPOT , Critical-Care Pain Observation Tool; ICU , Intensive care unit; IV : Intravenously; LD : Loading dose; PD/PK : Pharmacodynamics/pharmacokinetics


    Table 22.4

    Non-Opioid Adjunctive Pain Medications















































    DRUG USUAL DOSE PD/PK METABOLISM COMMENTS



    • Acetaminophen (Ofirmev)




    • IV: 650 mg q4h–1 g q6h




    • Onset: 5–10 min



    • Half-life: 10–20 min




    • Glucuronidation, sulfonation




    • CI in severe hepatic disease




    • Ketorolac (Toradol)




    • IM/IV: 30 mg then 15–30 mg q6h up to 5 days




    • Onset: 10 min



    • Half-life: 2.4–8.6 h




    • Hydroxylation, conjugation/renal excretion




    • Use with caution in renal/hepatic dysfunction



    • May increase risk of ARF, bleeding, or GI ADR




    • Gabapentin (Neuronton)




    • PO: 300–600 mg/day÷2–3 doses




    • Onset: N/A



    • Half-life: 5–7 h




    • Renal excretion




    • Renally adjust



    • For neuropathic pain




    • Carbamazepine (Tegretol)




    • PO: 50–100 mg BID




    • Onset: 1–3 min



    • Half-life: 25–65 h then 12–17 h




    • Oxidation




    • For neuropathic pain



    • Caution in hepatic impairment



    • Strong inducer of CYP enzymes, substrate of CYP3A4



    • ADR: SJS, TEN, pancytopenia, SIADH




    • Pregabalin




    • PO: 75–200 mg BID




    • Onset: days



    • Half-life: 6 h




    • Urine (90% unchanged drug)




    • For neuropathic pain




    • Ketamine (Ketalar)




    • IV: 0.5 mg/kg ×1 LD then 1–2 mcg/kg/min




    • Onset: 30 s



    • Half-life:




      • alpha: 10–15 min



      • beta: 2.5 h





    • N-dealkylation, hydroxylation, conjugation




    • ADR >10%: confusion, irrational behavior, excitement, delirium, hallucinations



    • For postsurgical patients to reduce opioid consumption




    • Notes:



    • Non-opioid adjunctive pain medications to be used in combination with opioids to reduce opioid use and optimize analgesia

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Feb 28, 2021 | Posted by in EMERGENCY MEDICINE | Comments Off on Pain, agitation, delirium, and neuromuscular blockade in the intensive care unit (ICU)

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